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Collagen-derived tripeptides (CTP) have demonstrated vascular-protective properties in preclinical models and early human investigations, where they enhanced endothelial resilience under oxidative stress and attenuated vascular inflammation

Both activate AMPK, but through distinct mechanisms: metformin inhibits complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, raising the cellular AMP:ATP ratio and thereby activating AMPK indirectly

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doi:10.1038/s41598-025-88392-8

doi: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00494 195 SobueK.YamamotoN.YonedaK.HodgsonM