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In people without pernicious anemia, about 0.5 g/day of B12 is reabsorbed by enterohepatic circulation in which B12-containing bile is secreted by the liver into the digestive tract where the B12 is then reabsorbed via intrinsic factor
In fact, the loss of zinc from SOD1 results in the remaining copper in SOD1 becoming extremely toxic to motor neurons (Trumbull 2009)
References Ito M, Numachi Y, Ohara A, Sora I (2008) Hyperthermic and lethal effects of methamphetamine: roles of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors
Last clinically reviewed: 31 July 2026 Clinical information sources NICE NG239 Vitamin B12 deficiency in over 16s: diagnosis and management NHS Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency anaemia NHS Diagnosis NHS Treatment MHRA Vitamin B12 and cobalt allergy advice This page provides general information about the pharmacy service and does not replace personalised advice from a pharmacist, GP or other healthcare professional
Yes, GHK-Cu is found naturally in human plasma, saliva, and urine